Embodiment in African literature

This research analyses the issue of embodiment in African literature written in English, investigating in depth Chinua Achebe’s novel Things Fall Apart and short story collection Girls at War. Utilising a qualitative method and a social constructionist approach, the paper investigates Achebe’s representation of African people, their culture and the destructive impact of colonisation on Ibo’s identity.

The findings demonstrate that through various symbols, myths, beliefs, customs, proverbs and songs of Ibo people Achebe reveals the power and beauty of Ibo culture that had been exposed to stereotypes and prejudices until the middle of the twentieth century. Thus, some received results are consistent with the previous findings, while other results provide new valid data on the issue of African literature.

1 Statement of the problem

Embodiment in African Literature reflects cultural traditions, colonial history and inner conflicts of African people, thus it is impossible to interpret African narratives without appropriate understanding of these aspects. In his novel Things Fall Apart and short story collection Girls at War Chinua Achebe brings up these issues, investigating religious and cultural ideals of Ibo people. Through symbols, myths, language and beliefs of Ibo society Achebe demonstrates the life of African people and the destruction of their unique culture.

2 Introduction

Until the creation of African literature in the twentieth century, European narratives of Alan Paton, Nadine Gordimer and Doris Lessing had produced distorted images of African people and their culture. Rejecting these images, Chinua Achebe makes an attempt to provide a true portrayal of African indigenous population and European people through specific symbols and myths. Achebe is one of the most well-known authors of African literature who writes his novels and short stories in English language and who embodies his ideas on culture through his African characters. Achebe’s knowledge of both European and African cultural traditions due to his ambivalent upbringing allows him to critically observe the issues of race, colonialism and religion. Achebe’s education and his obsession with African culture have contributed to the formation of new ways of expression in African literature. Thus, embodiment in Achebe’s literary works lacks any prejudices or stereotypes; instead, it is aimed at discussing various cultural aspects from different perspectives complicated by unique traditions and customs of Ibo people. Through his writing Chinua Achebe challenges any displays of imposed reality, masterfully renewing historical past and culture of African population. On the other hand, the writer demonstrates that the failure of certain African societies is explained by both the colonialist impact and some destructive values of indigenous population. It is this truthful and critical analysis of Ibo culture that transforms Achebe’s literary works into real masterpieces.

The aim of this dissertation is to discuss the issue of embodiment in African Literature on the example of Chinua Achebe’s novel Things Fall Apart and short story collection Girls at War. The research is divided into some sections. Chapter 1 reveals a statement of the problem that demonstrates the problematic of the research. Chapter 2 provides a brief overview of historical and social contexts of the period that is reflected in Achebe’s novels and stories. Chapter 3 analyses the opinions of critics in regard to Chinua Achebe and his works. Chapter 4 observes the research methods that are applied to the analysis. Chapter 5 investigates in detail the issue of embodiment in the mentioned literary works. Chapter 6 conducts a summarisation of the received findings, while Chapter 7 mentions the limitations of the research and proposes suggestions for further analysis of African Literature.

3 Review of the literature

Although Chinua Achebe brings up many important issues on African culture and colonialism, his novels and short stories have not attracted much attention from the side of critics. This controversy can be explained by ‘the problem of embodiment’, the notion analysed by Katherine Fishburn. Applying to the observation of early African American novels, Fishburn suggests that these narratives expose the problem of embodiment, because African writers continue to experience the pressure of slavery and social inequality. In particular, the researcher claims that “in composing the narratives that would prove them rational, the ex-slaves were faced with the dilemma of how to represent the body that had been the occasion of their enslavement and the impediment to their freedom” (Fishburn, 1997 p.xi). Another reason for the lack of critical works on African literature is the inability of European researchers to rightfully interpret African cultural traditions and customs. As African literature emerged only in 50s years of the twentieth century, earlier studies of African people were invalid and wrong. Although Achebe’s novel Things Fall Apart has been widely researched, such critics as Killam, Gleason and others have limited their analysis to the principal theme of the novel.

Paying attention to only cultural and social aspects, these critics have decreased the importance of Achebe’s narration in whole. However, some modern researchers manage to provide interesting interpretations of Chinua Achebe’s fiction, overcoming this limitation. In particular, Benedict Chiaka Njoku (1984) claims that “in the world of reality from which Achebe abstracts, the Ibo culture stresses the worth of every man and every woman” (p.6). On the other hand, even such profound analyses of Achebe’s novels and short stories continue to implicitly challenge the possibility of appropriate representation of Ibo people and Ibo culture through English language. A further analysis makes an attempt to oppose this notion, demonstrating uniqueness and power of embodiment in Achebe’s literary work and proving the claim that “Achebe is most successful in expressing his African experience in English and still preserving its African authenticity” (Obiechina, 1990 p.57).

4 Research methodology

The dissertation is based on two theoretical methods – a qualitative research method and a social constructionist approach. As valid theoretical tools, these methods provide an opportunity to analyse the discussed literary works from various perspectives and to evaluate cultural issues brought up by Chinua Achebe. In particular, the qualitative method is aimed at observing Achebe’s novel Things Fall Apart and short stories Girls at War on the basis of different interpretations, generating new results in regard to African people and their life. This method is utilised in the form of different studies on culture, social inequality and white superiority, constituting the core of the research. Applying the social constructionist approach to the research, the paper uncovers the importance of culture for African people and the threat of its destruction from the side of white missionaries. This approach regards every person through a particular social group that possesses individual traditions and customs, proving that people are shaped by society, in which they are brought up and live.

5 Discussion

5.1. Embodiment in Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe

In his famous novel Things Fall Apart a Nigerian author Chinua Achebe embodies one of the major ideas of his whole creative work – the necessity to preserve cultural traditions under the pressure of European colonisation. Uncovering the attempts of white people to interfere into the life of African Ibo, the writer reveals the negative consequences of this influence on indigenous population. Destroying Ibo culture, white people simultaneously destroy the world of this society, because their culture is the basis of their existence. Ibo culture depends on certain traditions, but when these traditions are eliminated, people lose their identities and fall apart. On the example of his characters Achebe demonstrates the failure of African culture under the impact of modern world, although the writer applies to nineteenth-century Nigeria that was a British colony at that time. When Okonkwo, a tribal leader of Ibo comes back to his people after several years, he realises that Christian dogmas and colonialism have almost destroyed Ibo population, depriving them of their cultural identity.

Through Ibo myths and traditions Achebe shows a gradual ruin of the connections between Ibo society and a person, paying a particular attention to the position of females in this society. Ibo stories and myths, as well as their language, are based on various images and reflect wisdom of Ibo people. Achebe portrays his characters, applying to different metaphors that symbolise various features of their personalities and explain some aspects of Ibo culture. For instance, describing Okonkwo, the writer claims that “one would think he never sucked at his mother’s breast” (Achebe, 1958 p.28) that means that this character is so firm in his heart that he can “kill a man’s spirit” (Achebe, 1958 p.28). Language reflects cultural identities of Ibo people; language is utilised by Achebe as “a force for shaping as well as expressing consciousness” (Wasserman, 1998 p.77). In this regard, Achebe reveals that the tensions between white missionaries and African society initially occur as a result of linguistic differences.

According to the social constructionist approach, a person is formed by society, thus language and culture are major aspects of people’s formation (Berger & Luckmann, 1966 pp.13-15). Throughout the narration Okonkwo makes attempts to avoid the name ‘agbala’ that in Ibo culture is identified with weakness and was earlier applied to Okonkwo’s father. Achebe demonstrates that Okonkwo’s tragedy is explained by the fact that “his whole life was dominated by fear, the fear of failure and weakness” (Achebe, 1958 p.16). Thus, when Okonkwo achieves power, he makes everything to prove his strength, implicitly revealing the values of Ibo culture. Okonkwo applies these values not only to himself, but also to his children and to his people, condemning those who convert into Christianity and who avoid violent actions against white people. In view of such cultural traditions, some men in the novel beat and humiliate women. Portraying one ceremony of Ibo people, the narrator claims that “It was clear from the way the crowd stood or sat that the ceremony was for men. There were many women, but they looked on from the fringe like outsiders” (Achebe, 1958 p.85).

On the other hand, women occupy a crucial place in Ibo culture, serving as the principal mentors of their children. Through his female characters Achebe reflects values and cultural traditions of Ibo. As Unchendu, the uncle of Okonkwo, puts it, “a man belongs to his fatherland when things are good and life is sweet. But when there is sorrow and bitterness, he finds refuge in his motherland” (Achebe, 1958 p.124). Thus, Ibo society reduces a woman to a position of a mother, and poor treatment of Ibo females arises from men’s fear of Ani, the Earth goddess that controls fertility. Ani also responds for morality of Ibo people and their creative work; in the image of this goddess Achebe embodies the idea that evil, oppression and inner destruction result in people’s failure and inability to exist. As men are afraid of this goddess, they feel that they can wreak their fear and anger on their daughters and wives, common females who appear in complete subjection to males. According to society’s morality, the communal good is placed above the interests of a person; however, Achebe demonstrates that this morality is usually ignored by young Ibo generation.

As one of the oldest persons in the village Ogbuefi Ezeudu claims, “the punishment for breaking the Peace of Ani had become very mild in their clan” (Achebe, 1958 p.23). Ibo customs are neglected even more with the arrival of white missionaries, because these people separate African society by implementing their religion and their laws. As white people fail to understand Ibo culture, they regard it as wrong and harmful, influencing some members of Ibo society. As a result, Ibo people refuse to maintain Okonkwo’s struggle against white missionaries, and Okonkwo has no choice but to commit suicide. Being unable to accept the occurred changes, Okonkwo fails. According to Willene P. Taylor (1998), “One of the main themes in Chinua Achebe’s novel, Things Fall Apart, is the search for values in a world that is constantly beset by change” (p.27). In this principal character Chinua Achebe embodies the notion that it is wrong to place personal values above the interests of the whole society and that violence is an unsuitable way to defend cultural traditions and customs.

Thus, embodiment in Things Fall Apart reflects the tensions that are based on the opposition of changes to traditions, demonstrating various sides of both Christian and Ibo values. In this regard, Ibo language symbolises the complexity of Ibo cultural traditions. Applying to Ibo songs, proverbs and myths and translating them into English language, Achebe reveals the power and uniqueness of Ibo language that simultaneously reflects originality of African culture (Obiechina, 1993 pp.125-127). This method of embodiment allows the writer to explain some crucial aspects of Ibo traditions and customs. For instance, Achebe presents an idea of chi from two contradictory perspectives. On the one hand, chi is interpreted as a personal destiny of every individual, but, on the other hand, chi depends on a person. This controversy is especially obvious in the character of Okonkwo who utilises both perspectives throughout the narration. If he succeeds, he considers that it is his own achievement, but if he fails, he condemns his bad destiny in his misfortunes. Another aspect of Ibo culture is the image of animals that symbolises various natural phenomena; in particular, through animal anecdotes Achebe uncovers Ibo beliefs.

Applying to animal elements in folklore, Ibo people reveal their life before the arrival of European missionaries. For example, they have a myth about the rough shell of a tortoise that reflects people’s connection with nature, or a myth about a holy python; thus Enoch’s murder of the python embodies his rejection of Ibo culture and his acceptance of European religion. The character’s disdain of this particular symbol collides with Ibo worship of the python, demonstrating the impossibility of African culture to interact with European culture. The symbol of the locusts is the principal symbol of the narration that uncovers a close connection between reality and mystique. The appearance of the locusts embodies the arrival of missionaries; however, eating them, Ibo people demonstrate their inability to understand the danger. This means that those Ibo members who change their religion into European religion are unable to realise the negative consequences of the colonial impact.

5.2. Embodiment in Girls at War

Embodiment in Girls at War and Other Stories is closely connected with the recognition of the problems experienced by African people, especially cultural conflicts and the destruction of traditional values. Throughout this collection of short stories Achebe reveals the impact of folklore on the identities of African people and the necessity to preserve cultural values. For instance, in the story The Madman Achebe creates a character Nwimbe, through which he embodies the destructive impact of colonialism on a personality. The writer does not explicitly demonstrate colonialism; only through Nwimbe he reveals that colonialism can transform a normal African individual into a mad person. Presenting Nwimbe as a respected character at the beginning of the story, Achebe symbolically changes the character’s identity by introducing a madman who takes Nwimbe’s clothes to conceal his nakedness. In this regard, Achebe discusses the issues of sanity and madness through a symbolic image of clothing that ironically embodies people’s identities. Despite the fact that the character is finally healed of madness, he experiences rejection and alienation, because his own people continue to regard him as mad, as a person who has lost his identity.

In other stories of this collection Achebe shows the loss of identity as a result of Christianity. In Chike’s School Days, Chikwe, a daughter of Sarah, is “brought up in the ways of the white man which meant the opposite of traditional” (Achebe, 1972 p.37). Through Sarah and her daughter Achebe embodies cultural conflicts; the writer reveals that when an African person adheres to European culture or religion, his/her psyche is ruined. For instance, Sarah rejects all traditions of her people and teaches “her children not to eat in their neighbor’s houses because they offered their food to idols” (Achebe, 1972 p.37). Contrasting such characters as Sarah and her daughter with other African people who have managed to preserve their religious beliefs and cultural traditions, Achebe demonstrates the difference between African world before colonialism and African world with the spread of European culture.

In the story Marriage is a Private Affair, Achebe embodies the issue of changes through the symbols of nature. Similar to his novel Things Fall Apart, the principal character of the story Okeke is afraid of accepting any changes; when the character’s son Nnaemeka marries a woman of a different culture, he adheres to his stereotypes and refuses to accept her. For Nnaemeka, love is crucial in marriage, while his father opposes this viewpoint. In this regard, Achebe brings up the issue of a generation gap that reflects the inability of two close people to come to terms. The relations between a father and a son are also aggravated, because cultural traditions of Ibo people prohibit Ibo men to marry women from other cultures. As the writer puts it, “never in the history of the Ibo people has a man married a woman who spoke a different tongue” (Achebe, 1972 p.52). However, when Okeke finds out that his two grandchildren wish to meet him, he gradually changes. Achebe identifies this inner change with natural changes; the writer shows that, standing near the window, Okeke sees that “it began to rain, the first rain in the year. It came down in large sharp drops and was accompanied by the lightning and thunder which mark a change of season” (Achebe, 1972 p.53). Therefore, seasonal change symbolises character’s ability to change his mind and accept reality that is usually exposed to different transformations.

Nature influences Okeke who suddenly understands that he is not able to allow his grandchildren “standing sad and forsaken under the harsh angry weather – shut out from his house” (Achebe, 1972 p.54). On the other hand, in the story Dead Man’s Path the writer embodies the idea that such sudden and quick changes result in complex cultural and social problems that African society is unable to solve due to its separation and constant pressure from the side of colonial rulers. According to Odun Balogun (1991), the short stories of Achebe “depict the failure of leadership on the part of the elites of traditional and modern Africa and the moral corruption, selfishness, ignorance, and inefficiency that are at the root of this failure” (p.57). In all stories of Girls at War Chinua Achebe points at the fact that the failure of Nigerian rulers brings destruction to both individual people and society in whole, but, as usual, “the common man has paid a heavier penalty than the elite who caused the misfortunes” (Balogun, 1991 p.65). In the short story Girls at War Achebe reveals this moral destruction of both Nigerian men and women, as the Civil war progresses in Nigeria. Portraying the relations between Nwankwo and Gladys, the writer demonstrates the pressure of the war that results in moral decay of Nigerian society. Drawing a parallel between social changes and moral decay, Achebe reveals that in this war environment people reduce sex to physical satisfaction. As a result, men and women regard each other as objects, reflecting the degradation of the whole country.

6 Conclusions

The research has analysed the issue of embodiment in African Literature written in English on the example of Chinua Achebe’s novel Things Fall Apart and short story collection Girls at War. In these literary works Achebe uncovers various cultural aspects of African people and the negative influence of colonialism on their values and morality. Analysing Ibo life and culture in Things Fall Apart, the writer demonstrates the gradual ruin of this African society, because of the loss of their traditions and identity. Simultaneously, the writer renews Ibo culture, applying to their unique language, old myths, proverbs and songs, through which he rejects all existing stereotypes.

Presenting his principal characters as embodiment of the whole society, Achebe reveals that both these characters and Ibo culture have positive and negative sides that usually result in cultural tensions. In Girls at War and Other Stories Achebe identifies the similar cultural conflicts, revealing that British colonialism transforms many African people and their life style, especially younger generation. In addition, the destruction of identity also occurs because of the conversion of some African people into Christianity; the change of religion results in the change of culture that considerably differs from African traditional customs. Thus, Achebe’s novels and stories challenge the representation of African people and their culture presented by European literary works. Although Chinua Achebe focuses on some principal themes, he usually makes digressions, applying to songs, anecdotes and myths. These digressions provide the writer with an opportunity to describe in detail the rituals and other cultural elements of African peoples. In both Girls at War and Things Fall Apart Ibo culture is presented as unique and fair, but in certain aspects it is rather demanding and cruel, especially in regard to females who are poorly treated and twins who are killed because of the existing beliefs.

7 Suggestions for further research

Although the conducted analysis has covered many crucial aspects in regard to Chinua Achebe’s novel Things Fall Apart and short story collection Girls at War, the research has some limitations. In particular, the paper has briefly discussed the issue of embodiment in only some stories and a novel; thus a further analysis may extend the number of observed works of Chinua Achebe, including No Longer at Ease, Anthills of the Savannah, A Man of the People, Arrow of God, The Sacrificial Egg and Other Stories, Lament of the Deer and Beware, Soul Brother. It will be also crucial to broaden the discussion by comparing the fiction of Achebe with the narratives of other African writers who apply to the similar issues and ways of expression. Such an approach will provide an opportunity to better understand the peculiarities of embodiment in African literature of the twentieth century.

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