The effects of personality and stress on sporting performance.

This paper will examine the effects of personality, and stress, on sporting performance with particular reference to an emerging body of empirical research demonstrating that perfectionism can have both positive, and negative, effects on sports-related quality of life and stress management strategies (Koivula, Hassman and Fallby, 2002).

The significance of the perfectionism trait is explored with reference to the Lazarus model of coping and personal stress (Lazarus, 1999). Central to the Lazarus model is the belief that appraisal and coping are crucial aspects of the individual’s ability to deal with stress.  Coping is identified by Lazarus (1999) as a complex process with significant reciprocal relationships between the individual’s appraisals, emotions and goals. Individual differences in response to stressful situations have been characterised by Lazarus and colleagues in terms of problem-focused coping methods, and emotion-focused coping methods (Lazarus and Folkman, 1984).  It is widely argued that sports participants use a combination of problem-focused coping, which includes addressing the source of the stress, and emotion-focused coping, such as avoidance of stressful situation or selective attention methods. However, there are individual differences with females, and adolescent males, reporting a higher sports-related stress intensity in terms of social evaluation of their performance, and less likelihood of adopting a problem-focused coping strategy than older males (Goyen and Anshel, 1998). 

The personality trait of perfectionism has been identified as important in relation to sports performance (Dunn, Dunn, Gotwals et al, 2006), as well as sports-related stress management (Koivula, Hassmen and Fallby, 2002). Perfectionism is a multidimensional construct that can be characterised by the individual’s intrapersonal self evaluation, and interpersonal perception of how others have viewed their performance (Blatt, 1995). Understanding the role of perfectionism in sports performance is important because it can have a negative impact on the individual through feelings of depression, stress, anxiety (Dunn et al, 2006) as well as fear of failure syndrome (Williams and Leffingwell, 1996). However, it can also have a positive impact on behaviour and a desire to achieve perfection maybe an essential component of professional sports participation (Ellis, 1982). Frost and Henderson (1991) found that athletes with poor self confidence are more concerned with making sporting errors and audience reactions to performance. Furthermore, Koivula et al’s (2002) study concluded that athletes with poorer self esteem demonstrate more negative patterns of perfectionism, including chronic performance anxiety, compared to athletes with high self esteem. Dunn, Gotwals and Dunn (2005) have identified that perfectionism can be a sport-specific construct, and noted that student athletes in their study reported a higher level of perfectionism in relation to their sporting lives, as opposed to home and school lives. Furthermore, a diary-based study of football players has supported the Lazarus reciprocal model of appraisal and coping, with footballers being particularly stressed when the situational demands being made on them interfered with their personal targets for the season (Holt and Dunn, 2004).  Recent research using a large sample of football players, elite ice hockey players, figure skaters and student athletes has confirmed that sports perfectionism is a multi-dimensional construct that can be characterised by four domains of high personal standards, concern/ anxiety over mistakes in performance, perceived parental pressure and perceived coach pressure (Dunn, Dunn, Gotwals et al, 2006).  However, this study highlights the disciplinary differences in perfectionism since the researchers observed that the responses of football players as a group, and figure skaters as a group were more inclined towards maladaptive perfectionism than other sports persons involved in the research project.

In conclusion, research has shown that for some individuals exhibiting particular personality traits, such as maladaptive perfectionism, competitive sports participation can be a stressful and anxiety-inducing experience. Conversely, ‘healthy’ perfectionism can be helpful in promoting performance satisfaction and maintaining high behavioural standards. Ultimately, perfectionism is one of many personality factors that may impact on the stress experience of sports participants. As Noblet and Gifford (2002) have shown in relation to professional football players, sources of stress are more extensive than worries about sports performance and can include difficulties balancing a sports career with family/ educational commitments, and a fear about future job security. This suggests that further research is required that explores the relationship between perfectionism personality traits and sports performance, but also examines other personality factors that may contribute to stress management by sports participants (Dunn et al, 2006).

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